A critical review of biogas production and usage with legislations framework across the globe.

This review showcases a comprehensive analysis of studies that highlight the different conversion procedures attempted across the globe. The resources of biogas production along with treatment methods are presented. The effect of different governing parameters like feedstock types, pretreatment approaches, process development, and yield to enhance the biogas productivity is highlighted. Biogas applications, for example, in heating, electricity production, and transportation with their global share based on national and international statistics are emphasized. Reviewing the world research progress in the past 10 years shows an increase of ~ 90% in biogas industry (120 GW in 2019 compared to 65 GW in 2010). Europe (e.g., in 2017) contributed to over 70% of the world biogas generation representing 64 TWh. Finally, different regulations that manage the biogas market are presented. Management of biogas market includes the processes of exploration, production, treatment, and environmental impact assessment, till the marketing and safe disposal of wastes associated with biogas handling. A brief overview of some safety rules and proposed policy based on the world regulations is provided. The effect of these regulations and policies on marketing and promoting biogas is highlighted for different countries. The results from such studies show that Europe has the highest promotion rate, while nowadays in China and India the consumption rate is maximum as a result of applying up-to-date policies and procedures.

Study of paracetamol 1-g oral solution bioavailability.

The aim of this work was to assess paracetamol bioavailability after administering 1 g in oral solution. Eighteen healthy volunteers were selected for this open-label study. A total of 15.4 ml of Gelocatil Oral Solution (Laboratorios Gelos, S.L.), corresponding to 1 g of paracetamol, were administered to fasting subjects. Blood samples were collected at 0 min, 10 min, 20 min, 30 min, 45 min, 1 h, 1.5 h, 2 h, 3 h, 4 h, 6 h, 8 h, 10 h and 12 h. Paracetamol plasma concentrations were determined by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. The study was conducted without deviations from protocol. Pharmacokinetic data from 18 subjects were allowed for estimating fast and high-paracetamol bioavailability: t(max) 20 min (10-45) [median (range)], C(max) 24. 3 mg/l (6.5) [mean (standard deviation)], AUC(0-t) 64.0 mg h/l (16.1) and AUC(0-00) 68.1 mg h/l (17.9). These results are comparable to those described for Gelocatil Oral Solution given at a 650 mg dose and for immediate release Gelocatil 650 mg tablets. Absorption speed was very fast, similar to that described for other oral-solution formulations, which provides an immediate onset of pain and fever relief. The results of this study show suitable bioavailability for 1 g Gelocatil Oral Solution, with fast-absorption speed that provides an immediate onset of pain and fever relief.

Cognitive performance in recreational ecstasy polydrug users: a two-year follow-up study.

There is important preclinical evidence of long lasting neurotoxic and selective effects of ecstasy MDMA on serotonin systems in non-human primates. In humans long-term recreational use of ecstasy has been mainly associated with learning and memory impairments. The aim of the present study was to investigate the neuropsychological profile associated with ecstasy use within recreational polydrug users, and describe the cognitive changes related to maintained or variable ecstasy use along a two years period. We administered cognitive measures of attention, executive functions, memory and learning to three groups of participants: 37 current polydrug users with regular consumption of ecstasy and cannabis, 23 current cannabis users and 34 non-users free of illicit drugs. Four cognitive assessments were conducted during two years. At baseline, ecstasy polydrug users showed significantly poorer performance than cannabis users and non-drug using controls in a measure of semantic word fluency. When ecstasy users were classified according to lifetime use of ecstasy, the more severe users (more than 100 tablets) showed additional deficits on episodic memory. After two years ecstasy users showed persistent deficits on verbal fluency, working memory and processing speed. These findings should be interpreted with caution, since the possibility of premorbid group differences cannot be entirely excluded. Our findings support that ecstasy use, or ecstasy/cannabis synergic effects, are responsible for the sub-clinical deficits observed in ecstasy polydrug users, and provides additional evidence for long-term cognitive impairment owing to ecstasy consumption in the context of polydrug use.

Otros factores que condicionan la toxicidad a largo plazo de la 3'4 metilenodioximetanfetamina (éxtasis) / Other factors that condition the long-term toxicity of 3, 4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (ectasy)

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Determination of kinetic law for toxic metals release during thermal treatment of model waste in a fluid-bed reactor.

Accumulation of toxic metals generated by thermal treatment of municipal solid waste presents a serious threat to the environment. A study was carried out to investigate the kinetic law of toxic metal release from municipal solid waste during their thermal treatment. Both direct and inverse models were developed in transient conditions. The direct mathematical model of the fluid-bed reactor is based on Kunii and Levenspiel's two-phase flow model for Geldart Group B particles. The inverse model intends to predict the metal's rate of vaporization from its concentration in the outlet gas. The derived models were found to predict reasonably well the experimental observations. A method to derive the kinetic law of toxic metals release during fluidized bed thermal treatment of model waste from the global model and the experimental measurements is derived and illustrated. A first-order law was fitted for the mineral matrix, and a second-order law (simplified) was fitted for the realistic model waste. The kinetic law obtained in this way could be integrated in a global model of combustion of municipal solid waste in order to simulate the effects of operating parameters on the metal's behavior.

[Resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in a four-year period in a Madrid hospital]. / Resistencia en Mycobacterium tuberculosis durante un periodo de cuatro años en un hospital de Madrid.

Tuberculosis is considered a serious public health problem. Some factors, such as HIV infection and immigration, have had a major impact on the epidemiology of this illness in Spain. The problem has worsened in recent years due to the dissemination of multiresistant strains. Therefore, a periodic surveillance should be established with respect to the incidence and the resistances observed. In this study we collect M. tuberculosis isolates carried out in the years 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004, and their susceptibility characteristics in patients from Area 2 in Madrid. To evaluate the isolates' susceptibilities, the MGIT 960 system was used. Of a total of 244 isolates, 15.2% were resistant to at least one antibiotic (different to streptomycin), and 29.9% of the isolates were obtained in samples from immigrant patients. In addition, the immigrant population affected showed a greater percentage of resistances (p <0.01) and a younger mean age (p <0.01) than the indigenous population.

Estudio de la biodisponibilidad en magnitud y en velocidad de comprimidos de ibuprofeno / Study of the extent and rate of bioavailability of ibuprofen tablets

Se estudió la biodisponibilidad en magnitud y en velocidad de ibuprofeno en comprimidos en un ensayo clínico cruzado en 18 sujetos sanos de ambos sexos. El estudio se aprobó por el comité ético del centro y se autorizó por la Agencia Española del Medicamento. Los voluntarios firmaron el consentimiento informado y se incluyeron siguiendo los procedimientos habituales de este tipo de estudios. Los participantes recibieron en 2 sesiones distintas una dosis única de 600 mg de ibuprofeno en Gelofeno® 600 mg comprimidos, Laboratorios Gelos SL, o en la formulación de referencia, Neobrufen® 600 mg comprimidos. Se determinaron las concentraciones plasmáticas de ibuprofeno inmediatamente antes (0 h) y 0,25, 0,5, 0,75, 1, 1,5, 2, 2,5, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 y 24 h después de la administración del fármaco, y se calcularon los parámetros farmacocinéticos derivados de éstas. En todos los sujetos, Gelofeno® 600 mg comprimidos produjo concentraciones plasmáticas de ibuprofeno por encima del límite de cuantificación entre 15 y 30 min tras su administración, y en 9 (50%) de ellos en 1 h ya se alcanzaron las concentraciones máximas. La mediana del tiempo al que se alcanzó la concentración máxima (tmáx) fue de 1,25 h y la concentración máxima promedio fue de 40,7 mg/l. Gelofeno® 600 mg comprimidos resultó bioequivalente, tanto en la magnitud como en la velocidad de su biodisponibilidad comparado con el fármaco de referencia. El preparado presentó una buena tolerabilidad y no se observaron acontecimientos adversos relacionados con el fármaco administrado(AU)

The extent and rate of bioavailability of ibuprofen tablets were determined in a crossover clinical trial in 18 healthy subjects of both sexes. The study was approved by the local ethical committee and was authorized by the Spanish Medicines Agency. Volunteers signed an informed consent form and were included in accordance with the standard procedures for this type of study. In two distinct sessions participants received a single 600 mg ibuprofen dose as Gelofeno® 600 mg tablets (Laboratorios Gelos S.L.), or as the reference formulation, Neobrufen® 600 mg tablets. Ibuprofen concentrations in plasma were determined immediately before (0 h) and 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 24 h after drug administration. The pharmacokinetic parameters were then calculated. In all subjects, Gelofeno® 600 mg tablets produced plasma concentrations above the quantification limit between 15 and 30 minutes after administration, and in 9 (50%) of these subjects maximal plasma concentrations were reached at 1 h. The median tmax was 1.25 h, and the average maximal plasma concentration was 40.7 mg/l. Gelofeno® 600 mg tablets were bioequivalent both in extent and in rate of bioavailability compared with the reference drug. The formulation showed good tolerability and no medication-related adverse effects were observed(AU)

Resistencia en Mycobacterium tuberculosis durante un periodo de cuatro años en un hospital de Madrid / Resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in a four-year period in a Madrid hospital

La tuberculosis es considerada un grave problema de salud pública. Algunos factores, como la infección por VIH o la inmigración, han afectadode manera importante a la epidemiología de esta enfermedad en España. El problema se ha visto agravado en los últimos años con ladiseminación de cepas multirresistentes. Por todo ello debe establecerse una vigilancia periódica respecto a la incidencia y las resistenciasobservadas. En este estudio se recogen los aislamientos de Mycobacterium tuberculosis obtenidos en los años 2001, 2002, 2003 y 2004, ysus características de sensibilidad a los antituberculosos en pacientes del Área 2 de Madrid. Para evaluar la sensibilidad de las cepas se utilizóel sistema MGIT 960®. Se aislaron 244 cepas, de las cuales el 15,2% fue resistente al menos a un antibiótico (distinto de la estreptomicina).Un 29,9% de los aislamientos se obtuvieron en muestras de pacientes inmigrantes. Además, la población inmigrante afectada mostróun mayor porcentaje de resistencias (p <0.01) y una edad media menor (p <0.01) que la población autóctona

Tuberculosis is considered a serious public health problem. Some factors, such as HIV infection and immigration, have had a major impact on theepidemiology of this illness in Spain. The problem has worsened in recent years due to the dissemination of multiresistant strains. Therefore,a periodic surveillance should be established with respect to the incidence and the resistances observed. In this study we collect M. tuberculosisisolates carried out in the years 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004, and their susceptibility characteristics in patients from Area 2 in Madrid. Toevaluate the isolates’ susceptibilities, the MGIT 960® system was used. Of a total of 244 isolates, 15.2% were resistant to at least one antibiotic(different to streptomycin), and 29.9% of the isolates were obtained in samples from immigrant patients. In addition, the immigrant populationaffected showed a greater percentage of resistances (p <0.01) and a younger mean age (p <0.01) than the indigenous population

Development of an inverse method to identify the kinetics of heavy metal release during waste incineration in fluidized bed.

This paper deals with the emission of heavy metals (HM) during the incineration of municipal solid waste in a fluidized bed reactor. This study focused on the development of a general method to identify the kinetics of vaporization of heavy metals from the on-line analysis of exhaust gas. This method is an inverse method, which requires only the time evolution of the HM concentration in exhaust gases (experimental data) and a global bubbling bed model developed for transient conditions at the reactor scale. First, a lab-scale fluidized bed incinerator was set-up to simulate the HM release during the thermal treatment of metal-spiked model wastes. A specific on-line analysis system based on ICP-OES was developed to measure in real time the variation of the relative concentration of HM in exhaust gases. Then, a two-phase flow bubbling bed model was developed and validated to calculate the kinetics of vaporization of HM from its measured concentration time profile in the outlet gas. The technique was first validated with model waste (metal-spiked mineral matrices), thus enabling at each time both solid sampling for measuring the HM vaporization kinetic and on-line analysis for measuring the HM concentration in the outlet gas. The inverse method was then applied to realistic artificial wastes (derived from real wastes) to identify the HM vaporization kinetics from the on-line analysis results.

Metanfetamina / Metamphetamine

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Alucinógenos: ¿drogas para soñar? / Hallucinogenics: drugs for dreaming?

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[Study of the extent and rate of bioavailability of ibuprofen tablets]. / Estudio de la biodisponibilidad en magnitud y en velocidad de comprimidos de ibuprofeno.

The extent and rate of bioavailability of ibuprofen tablets were determined in a crossover clinical trial in 18 healthy subjects of both sexes. The study was approved by the local ethical committee and was authorized by the Spanish Medicines Agency. Volunteers signed an informed consent form and were included in accordance with the standard procedures for this type of study. In two distinct sessions participants received a single 600 mg ibuprofen dose as Gelofeno(®) 600 mg tablets (Laboratorios Gelos S.L.), or as the reference formulation, Neobrufen(®) 600 mg tablets. Ibuprofen concentrations in plasma were determined immediately before (0 h) and 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 24 h after drug administration. The pharmacokinetic parameters were then calculated. In all subjects, Gelofeno(®) 600 mg tablets produced plasma concentrations above the quantification limit between 15 and 30 minutes after administration, and in 9 (50%) of these subjects maximal plasma concentrations were reached at 1 h. The median t(max) was 1.25 h, and the average maximal plasma concentration was 40.7 mg/l. Gelofeno(®) 600 mg tablets were bioequivalent both in extent and in rate of bioavailability compared with the reference drug. The formulation showed good tolerability and no medication-related adverse effects were observed.

Más información sobre el GHB / More Information on GHB

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Volatilization of heavy metals during incineration of municipal solid wastes.

Incineration experiments with MSW, which had been impregnated with heavy metals, were presented to obtain information on the volatilization behavior of the elements cadmium(Cd), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) under different conditions. Experiments were carried out in a bubbling fluid bed system connected to a customized inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) for analyzing metals in the flue gas. The results indicated that the combustion temperature, the gas atmosphere, and the chlorine content in the flue gas could affect the volatilization behavior of heavy metals. In the fluidized bed combustion, a large surface area was provided by the bed sand particles, and they may act as absorbents for the gaseous ash-forming compound. Comparer with the metals Cd and Pb, the vaporization of Zn was low. The formation of stable compounds such as ZnO x Al2O3 could greatly decrease the metals volatilization. The presence of chlorine would enhance the volatilization of heavy metals by increasing the formation of metal chlorides. However, when the oxygen content was high, the chlorinating reaction was kinetically hindered, which heavy metals release would be delayed.

Fate of heavy metals during municipal solid waste incineration.

A thermodynamic analysis was performed to determine whether it is suitable to predict the heavy metal (HM) speciation during the Municipal Solid Waste Incineration process. The fate of several selected metals (Cd, Pb, Zn, Cr, Hg, As, Cu, Co, Ni) during incineration was theoretically investigated. The equilibrium analysis predicted the metal partitioning during incineration and determined the impact of operating conditions (temperature and gas composition) on their speciation. The study of the gas composition influence was based on the effects of the contents of oxygen (reducing or oxidising conditions) and chlorine on the HM partitioning. The theoretical HM speciation which was calculated in a complex system representing a burning sample of Municipal Solid Waste can explain the real partitioning (obtained from literature results) of all metals among the various ashes except for Pb. Then, the results of the thermodynamic study were compared with those of characterisation of real incinerator residues, using complementary techniques (chemical extraction series and X-ray micro-analyses). These analysis were performed to determine experimentally the speciation of the three representative metals Cr, Pb, and Zn. The agreement is good for Cr and Zn but not for Pb again, which mainly shows unleachable chemical speciations in the residues. Pb tends to remain in the bottom ash whereas thermodynamics often predicts its complete volatilisation under chlorides, and thus its presence exclusively in fly ash.

Modelling of heavy metal vaporisation from a mineral matrix.

This study deals with the fundamental aspects of the volatilisation of heavy metals (HM) during municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration. The thermal treatment of a model waste was theoretically and experimentally studied in a fluid-bed. A mathematical model was developed to predict the fate of metallic species according to the main phenomena controlling the process: heat and mass transfer (transport phenomena), chemical reactions involving HM, and mechanism of vapour metal species sorption inside the porous matrix. The model assumes local thermodynamic equilibrium between the vapour and the metal compound on the substrate in the pores of a particle. This approach permits to predict the extent of HM vaporisation from a mineral porous matrix when its physical properties are known. Experimental data concerning CdCl(2) release from an alumina matrix in a 850 degrees C fluidised bed are in good agreement with theoretical results.